The Thorium Lead Dating Method

 

By Paul Nethercott

September 2012

 

How reliable is radiometric dating? We are repeatedly told that it proves the Earth to be billions of years old. If radiometric dating is reliable then it should not contradict the evolutionary model. According to the Big Bang theory the age of the Universe is 10 to 15 billion years.¹ Standard evolutionist publications give the age of the universe as 13.75 Billion years. ^{2, 3}

 

Standard evolutionist geology views the Earth as being 4.5 billion years old. Here are some quotes from popular text: “The age of the Earth is 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years.” ⁴ “The Solar System, formed between 4.53 and 4.58 billion years ago.” ¹ “The age of 4.54 billion years found for the Solar System and Earth.” ¹ “A valid age for the Earth of 4.55 billion years.” ^{5, 6}

 

If we use the computer program Isoplot ⁷ and calculate the ages of the isoptopic ratios in geology magazine articles we see why not dates have been put beside them. Many dates are negative or older than the age of the universe. That is logically impossible. How can the rock have formed millions of years in the future? The dating methods contradict each other and give ages that disagree with the Geological Column.

 

How can Earth rocks be dated as being older than the Big Bang? Here are dates calculated from several articles taken from major geology magazines which give absolutely absurd dates.

 

Tracing the Indian Ocean Mantle

These samples were dated in 1998 by scientists from the School Of Ocean And Earth Science And Technology, University Of Hawaii, Honolulu. According to this article the samples were taken from volcanic material that is only 100 million years old.⁸ If we put isotopic ratios ⁹ into Microsoft Excel and run the through Isoplot we find the average age is almost 17 billion years old. In Table 2 we see some fantastic dates.

 

Table 1

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 2

 

 

Petrogenesis of the Flood Basalts

These samples were dated in 1998 by scientists from the Department Of Earth, Atmospheric And Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute Of Technology. According to this article the samples were taken from the volcanic crust of the Kerguelen Archipelago that is only 30 million years old.¹⁰ If we put isotopic ratios ¹¹ into Microsoft Excel and run the through Isoplot we find the average age of Mount Bureau is over 5 billion years old. In Table 3 we see some fantastic dates for both mountains.

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 3

 

 

Nature of the Source Regions

These samples were dated in 2004 by scientists from the Department Of Earth Sciences, The Open University, England. According to the article: “Most samples are Miocene in age, ranging from 10 to 25Ma in the south and 19Ma to the present day in northern Tibet.”^{12, 13} If we run the 87Rb/86Sr ratios ¹⁴ in the essay through Isoplot we get dates between 1 and 24 million years.  If we run the Uranium/Lead ratios ¹⁵ in the essay through Isoplot we get unbelievable dates as listed below in Table 4.

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 4

Generation of Palaeocene Adakitic Andesites

These samples were dated in 2007 by scientists from the Chinese Academy Of Sciences, Wushan, Guangzhou.

According to the article: “The initial Sr, Nd and Pb isotopic ratios were corrected using the Ar/Ar age of 55Ma.”^{16, 17} If we run the Uranium/Lead ratios ¹⁸ in the essay through Isoplot we get unbelievable dates as listed below in Table 5.

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 5

 

 

Evidence for a Widespread Tethyan Upper Mantle

In 2005 scientists from the School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawaii, Honolulu dated these rocks. According to the article: “Isotopic data for such sites show that mantle similar to that beneath the modern Indian Ocean was present, at least in places, as long ago as 140 Ma, the age of the oldest true Indian Ocean crust yet sampled.” ^{19, 20} If we run the Rb/Sr ratios ²¹ through Isoplot we see that the average age is 168 million years. [Table 6]

 

Rb/Sr Ages Summary

Table 6

 

If we run the Pb/Th ratios ²² through Isoplot we see that the average age is 22,675 million years. [Table 7]

 

Pb/Th Ages Summary

Table 7

 

 

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 8

 

 

Post-Collisional Potassic and Ultrapotassic

According to the article: “Major and trace element, Sr–Nd–Pb–O isotope and mineral chemical data are presented for post-collisional ultrapotassic, silicic and high-K calc-alkaline volcanic rocks from SW Tibet, with 40Ar/39Ar ages in the range 17–25 Ma.” ^{23, 24} If we run the Rb/Sr ratios ²⁵ through Isoplot we see that the average age is 43 million years. [Table 9]

 

Rb/Sr Ages Summary

Table 9

 

If we run the Pb/Th ratios ²⁶ through Isoplot we see that the average age is 78,808 million years. [Table 10]

 

Pb/Th Ages Summary

Table 10

 

 

In Table 11 we see a comparison between the model age [“True Age”] and the isotopic age derived from atomic ratios. We can see how far in error the Thorium dating system is.

 

 

208Pb/232Th Ages

Table 11

 

Continental Lithospheric Contribution to Alkaline

According to the article: "These two genetically related alkaline complexes were emplaced at the east Atlantic continent-ocean boundary during the Upper Cretaceous, i.e. 66-72 m. y. ago" ²⁷  If we run the Rb/Sr ratios ²⁸ through Isoplot we see that the average age is 65 million years. [Table 9]

 

Rb/Sr Ages Summary

Table 12

 

If we run the Pb/Th ratios ²⁸ through Isoplot we see that the average age is 6,126 million years. [Table 13]

 

 

Pb/Th Ages Summary

Table 13

 

208Pb/232Th Ages

Table 14

 

 

 

Pin Pricking The Elephant

According to tables ²⁹ in the article, the rock formation is only 120 million years old. If we run the ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb ratios ³⁰ through Isoplot we get an average age of 5,000 million years. If we run the Pb/Th ratios ³¹ through Isoplot we see in Table 15 that the age is between 12 billion and 14 billion years old.

 

208Pb/232Th Ages

Table 15

 

Chronology And Geochemistry Of Lavas

According to the article: “New ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar incremental heating age determinations for dredged rocks from volcanoes east of Salas y Gomez Island show that, with very few exceptions, ages increase steadily to the east from 1.4 to 30 Ma” ³²  Tables ³³ in the article affirms this as the true age of the geological formation. ³³ If we run the Pb/Th ratios ³⁴ through Isoplot we see that the average age is 8,325 million years. [Table 16] In Table 17 we see some of the incredible dates all the way from 5 billion to almost 24 billion years old.

 

Pb/Th Ages Summary

Table 16

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 17

 

Ion Microprobe U-Th-Pb Dating

According to the article: “The formation age of this meteorite is 1.53 ± 0.46 Ga. On the other hand, the data of nine apatite grains from Lafayette are well represented by planar regression rather than linear regression, indicating that its formation age is 1.15 ± 0.34 Ga” ³⁵  If we run the Pb/Th ratios ³⁶ through Isoplot we see that the average age is 20,409 million years. [Table 18] In Table 19 we see some of the incredible dates all the way from 7 billion to over 40 billion years old.

 

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 18

 

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 19

 

 

U–Th–Pb Dating Of Secondary Minerals

This dating was done in 2008 on minerals from Yucca Mountain, Nevada. It was done by scientists from the U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado, the Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario and the Research School of Earth Sciences and Planetary Science Institute, The Australian National University. According to the article: “Most ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U ages determined for the calcite subsamples are much older than the 12.8-Ma age of the host tuff (Table 3 and Fig. 5) and thus unreasonable.” ³⁷ If we run the Pb/Th ratios ³⁸ through Isoplot we see that the average age is 10,000 million years [Table 19]. The Rb/Sr ratios ³⁹ gave a uniform result of 11 to 13 million years old [Table 19].

 

208Pb/232Th Ages Versus Rb/Sr Ages

Table 20

 

Another set of dates ⁴⁰ in the essay [Table 20] give dates as high as 82 billion years old.

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 21

 

 

The Influence of High U-Th Inclusions

This dating was done in 1998 by scientists from Zurich, Switzerland. According to the article: “The U-Th-Pb data from the bulk dissolutions are highly complex and yield apparent ages ranging from 1000 Ma to 30 Ma.” ⁴¹  

If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁴² through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 300 to over 14,000 million years old [Table 21].

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 22

 

 

If we run another set of Pb/Th ratios ⁴³ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 160 to over 37,000 million years old [Table 22].

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 23

 

 

U, Th And Pb Isotope Compositions

These samples were dated in 2009 by scientists from the Arthur Holmes Isotope Geology Laboratory, Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University. ⁴⁴ According to the article: “Detailed petrographic and geochemical descriptions of the samples presented here can be found elsewhere” ⁴⁵ If we examine what these other people ^46-49 have said about the same rock formation the consensus is that it is three million years old.

If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁵⁰ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 2,000 to over 92,000 million years old [Table 23].

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 24

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 25

 

 

U–Th–Pb Isotope Data

According to the article: “In contrast to the apparent ²⁰⁷Pb–²⁰⁶Pb ages, the minimum depositional age of the Warrawoona Group is 3,426Ma based on a U–Pb zircon age from the Panorama Formation.” ⁵¹ If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁵² through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 25,000 to over 100,000 million years old [Table 25]. In Table 26 we can see the maximum ages for each dating method.

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 26

 

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 27

 

 

Evolution Of Reunion Hotspot Mantle

According to the article: “In the same context, the Trend 1 data imply that (1) the isotopic composition of the Reunion end-member has changed relatively little in the last 66 m.y.” ⁵³ If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁵⁴ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 5,000 to over 13,000 million years old [Table 27]. In Table 28 we can see the maximum ages for the Thorium/Lead dating method.

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 28

 

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 29

 

 

Continental Growth 3.2 Gyr Ago

According to the article the rock formation is 3,200 million years old. ⁵⁵ If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁵⁵ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from negative 24,000 to over 11,000 million years old [Table 29]. In Table 30 we can see the maximum ages for the Thorium/Lead dating method.

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 30

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 31

 

 

Uranium-Lead Zircon Ages

If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁵⁶ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 6,000 to over 55,000 million years old [Table 31]. In Table 32 we can see the maximum ages for each dating method.

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 32

 

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 33

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 34

 

 

 

 

The Pilbara Craton in Western Australia

According to the article the rock formation is 3,200 million years old. ⁵⁷ If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁵⁸ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 2,000 to over 8,000 million years old [Table 34]. In Table 35 we can see the maximum ages for the Thorium/Lead dating method.

 

Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 35

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 36

 

 

If we run another set of Pb/Th ratios ⁵⁹ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 500 to over 17,000 million years old [Table 36]. In Table 37 we can see the maximum ages for the Thorium/Lead dating method.

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 37

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 38

 

Timing of Sedimentation, Metamorphism, and Plutonism

According to the article the rock formation is 478 million years old. ⁶⁰ If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁶¹ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 500 to over 80,000 million years old [Table 38]. In Table 39 we can see the maximum ages for the Thorium/Lead dating method.

 

Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 39

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 40

 

U–Th and U–Pb Systematics in Zircons

According to the article: “At Taupo, the zircon model ages range from <20 ka to >500 Ma.” ⁶² If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁶³ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 11,000 to over 41,000 million years old [Table 40]. In Table 41 we can see the maximum ages for the Thorium/Lead dating method.

 

Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 41

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 42

 

 

 

 

 

Hydrothermal Zebra Dolomite

According to the article the rock formation is 416 million years old. ⁶⁴ If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁶⁵ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 6,000 to over 55,000 million years old [Table 42]. In Table 43 we can see the maximum ages for the Thorium/Lead dating method.

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 43

 

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 44

 

If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁶⁵ in the second spreadsheet table through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 6,000 to over 270,000 million years old [Table 44]. In Table 45 we can see the maximum ages for the Thorium/Lead dating method.

 

Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 45

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 46

 

Origin of Indian Ocean Seamount Province

According to the article the rock formation is 6 million years old. ⁶⁶ If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁶⁷ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 2,000 to over 28,000 million years old [Table 46]. In Table 47 we can see the maximum ages for the Thorium/Lead dating method.

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 47

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 48

 

 

Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems

According to the article the rock formation is 100 million years old. ⁶⁸ If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁶⁸ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 5,000 to over 82,000 million years old [Table 48]. In Table 49 we can see the maximum ages for the Thorium/Lead dating method.

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 48

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 49

 

 

 

Continental Lithospheric Contribution

According to the article the rock formation is 72 million years old. ⁶⁹ If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁶⁹ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 5,000 to over 82,000 million years old [Table 50]. In Table 51 we can see the maximum ages for the Thorium/Lead dating method.

 

Dating Methods - Ages Summary

Table 50

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 51

 

Cenozoic Volcanic Rocks of Eastern China

According to the article the rock formation is Quaternary in age. ⁷⁰ If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁷¹ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 4,000 to over 17,000 million years old [Table 52]. In Table 53 we can see the maximum ages for the Thorium/Lead dating method.

 

Dating Methods - Ages Summary

Table 52

 

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 53

 

Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopes

According to the article the rock formation is 2,900 million years. ⁷² If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁷³ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 79 to over 94,000 million years old [Table 54]. In Table 55 we can see the maximum ages for the Thorium/Lead dating method.

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

Table 54

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 55

 

 

An Extremely low U/Pb Source

According to the article: “The Rb-Sr data yield an internal isochron age of 3,840 ± 32 Ma.” ⁷⁴ If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁷⁵ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 5,000 to over 13,000 million years old [Table 56]. In Table 57 we can see the maximum ages for the Thorium/Lead dating method.

 

Uranium/Thorium/Lead - Ages Summary

 

Table 56

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 57

 

 

Petrogenesis and Origins of Mid-Cretaceous

According to the article: “The basal lava flow displays a sharp contact with the underlying terrestrial sediments, which in turn rest on shallow marine sediments of Ngaterian age (100.2-95.2Ma).” ⁷⁶ If we run the Rb/Sr ratios ⁷⁷ through Microsoft Excel we see that the dates vary from 15 to 85 million years old [Table 58]. If we run the Pb/Th ratios ⁷⁸ through Isoplot we see that the dates vary from 4,000 to over 10,000 million years old [Table 58]. In Table 59 we can see the maximum ages for the Thorium/Lead dating method.

 

 

Dating Methods - Ages Summary

Table 58

 

 

Thorium/Lead – Maximum Ages

Table 59

 

Conclusion

If we use the standard formula ⁷⁹ for calculating Rb/Sr ages we find on many occasions that the Uranium/Thorium/Lead dates are all wrong! Evolutionist Brent Dalrymple states:

 

“Several events in the formation of the Solar System can be dated with considerable precision.” ⁸⁰

 

Looking at some of the dating it is obvious that precision is much lacking. He then goes on:

 

“Biblical chronologies are historically important, but their credibility began to erode in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries when it became apparent to some that it would be more profitable to seek a realistic age for

the Earth through observation of nature than through a literal interpretation of parables.” ⁸¹

 

I his book he gives a table ⁸² with radiometric dates of twenty meteorites. If you run the figures through Microsoft Excel, you will find that they are 98.7% in agreement. There is only a seven percent difference between the ratio of the smallest and oldest dates. As we have seen in this essay, such a perfect fit is attained by selecting data and ignoring other data. A careful study of the latest research shows that such perfection is illusionary at best.

 

Much of the data in Dalrymple’s book is selectively taken to suit and ignores data to the contrary. The Bible believer who accepts the creation account literally has no problem with such unreliable dating methods. Much of the data in Dalrymple’s book is selectively taken to suit and ignores data to the contrary.

 

 

References

 

 

 

1              http://web.archive.org/web/20051223072700/http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html

The age of 10 to 15 billion years for the age of the Universe.

 

2              http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe

 

3              http://arxiv.org/pdf/1001.4744v1.pdf

Microwave Anisotropy Probe Observations, Page 39, By N. Jarosik

 

4              http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_Earth

 

5              http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/190/1/205

The age of the Earth, G. Brent Dalrymple

Geological Society, London, Special Publications, January 1, 2001, Volume 190, Pages 205-221

 

6              The age of the earth, Gérard Manhes

Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 47, Issue 3, May 1980, Pages 370–382

 

7              http://www.bgc.org/isoplot_etc/isoplot.html

 

8              Tracing the Indian Ocean Mantle, Journal Of Petrology, 1998, Volume 39, Number 7,

Pages 1288

 

9              Reference 8, Page 1292-1294

 

10           Petrogenesis of the Flood Basalts, Journal Of Petrology, 1998, Volume 39, Number 4,

Pages 711

 

11           Reference 10, Page 729-730

 

12           Nature of the Source Regions, Journal Of Petrology, 2004, Volume 45, Number 3, Pages 556

 

13           Reference 12, Table 1, Page 558

 

14           Reference 12, Page 566

 

15           Reference 12, Page 575-576

 

16           Generation of Palaeocene Adakitic Andesites, Journal Of Petrology, 2007, Volume 48, Number 4, Pages 667

 

17           Reference 16, Table 5, Page 676, 677

 

18           Reference 16, Table 9, Page 684

 

19           Evidence for a Widespread Tethyan Upper Mantle, Journal Of Petrology, 2005, Volume 46, Number 4, Pages 830

 

20           Reference 19, Charts, Pages 843, 844, 845, 849

 

21           Reference 19, Pages 832-834

 

22           Reference 19, Pages 835-837

 

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27           Continental Lithospheric Contribution to Alkaline, Journal Of Petrology, 1997, Volume 38, Number 1, Pages 115

 

28           Reference 27, Pages 124, 125

 

 

29           Pin Pricking The Elephant, Geological Society Of London, Special Publications, 2004,

Volume 229, Pages 139, 140, 144

 

30           Reference 29, Pages 138, 143

 

31           Reference 29, Pages 143

 

32           Chronology And Geochemistry Of Lavas, Journal Of Petrology, April 11, 2012, Pages 1-32

                Pages 1

 

33           Reference 32, Pages 5, 6, 7, 14

 

34           Reference 32, Pages 12

 

35           Ion microprobe U-Th-Pb dating, Meteoritics & Planetary Science, 2004, Volume 39, Number 12, Pages 2033

 

36           Reference 35, Pages 2036

 

37           U–Th–Pb Dating Of Secondary Minerals, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2008, Volume 72, Pages 2078

 

38           Reference 37, Pages 2072, 2073

 

39           Reference 37, Pages 2074

 

40           Reference 37, Pages 2080, 2081

 

41           The Influence of High U-Th, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 1998, Volume 62,

Numbers 21/22, Pages 3527

 

42           Reference 41, Pages 3529

 

43           Reference 41, Pages 3531

 

44           U, Th And Pb Isotope Compositions, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2009, Volume 73,

Pages 469

 

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46           Earth Planetary Science Letters, 1987, Volume 82, Pages 121–135.

 

47           Chemical Geology, 2003, Volume 200, Pages 71–87.

 

48           Journal Petrology, 1993, Volume 34, Pages 125–172.

 

49           Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2007, Volume 71, Pages 1290–1311

 

50           Reference 44, Pages 475, 476

 

51           U–Th–Pb Isotope Data, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2012, Volume 319-320,

Pages 200

 

52           Reference 51, Pages 199

 

53           Evolution Of Reunion Hotspot Mantle, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 1995, Volume 134, Pages 169

 

54           Reference 53, Page 174

 

55           Continental Growth 3.2 Gyr Ago, Nature, 2012, Volume 485, Pages 627–630, http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v485/n7400/extref/nature11140-s3.xls

 

56           Uranium-Lead Zircon Ages, http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2008/1142/tables/table04.xls

 

57           Pilbara Craton in Western Australia,

http://www.geo.uu.nl/~kikeb/thesis/thesis/thesis_frame.html

 

58         http://www.geo.uu.nl/~kikeb/thesis/database/upb/KB746.xls

 

59           www.geo.uu.nl/~kikeb/thesis/database/upb/KB770.xls

 

60           Timing of sedimentation, metamorphism, and plutonism,

http://geosphere.gsapubs.org/content/3/6/683.abstract

 

61           http://geosphere.gsapubs.org/content/suppl/2009/02/18/3.6.683.DC1/00138_App3.xls

 

62           U–Th and U–Pb Systematics in Zircons, Journal Petrology, January 1, 2005, volume 46,

Number 1, Pages 27

 

63           http://petrology.oxfordjournals.org/content/suppl/2004/09/24/egh060.DC1/Table_3.xls

 

64           Hydrothermal Zebra Dolomite, Geosphere, October 2010, Volume 6, Number 5, Pages 663-690,

 

65           http://geosphere.gsapubs.org/content/suppl/2010/09/29/6.5.663.DC1/530_supp1.xls

 

66           Origin of Indian Ocean Seamount Province, Nature Geoscience, 2011, Volume 4, Pages 883-887

 

67           www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v4/n12/extref/ngeo1331-s2.xls

 

68           Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, 2003, Volume 4, Page 1089, http://earthref.org/ERDA/download:147/

 

 

69           Continental Lithospheric Contribution, Journal Of Petrology, 1997, Volume 38, Number 1,

Pages 124

 

70           Cenozoic Volcanic Rocks of Eastern China, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 105 (1991), Pages 154

 

71           Reference 70, Pages 156, 157

 

72           Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopes, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 113 (1992), Pages 107

 

73           Reference 72, Page 110

 

74           An extremely low U/Pb source, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 1993, Volume 57,

Pages 4687

 

75           Reference 74, Pages 4690, 4691

 

76           Petrogenesis and Origins of Mid-Cretaceous, Journal Of Petrology, 2010, Volume 51,

Number 10, Pages 2005

 

77           Reference 76, Page 2024

 

78           Reference 76, Page 2025

 

79           Isotopes in the Earth Sciences, Edited By Robert Brown, 1988, Elsevier, 1994,

Chapman and Hall Publishers, Page 167

http://books.google.de/books?id=k90iAnFereYC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false

 

80           The Age Of The Earth, By G. Brent Dalrymple, 1991, Stanford University Press, Stanford,

California, Page 10.

 

81           Reference 81, Page 23

 

82           Reference 81, Page 287

 

 

 

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